Iustinianus Primus Law Review
type: channel
description: Iustinianus Primus Law Review is an international, peer-reviewed, open-access, online, scientific law journal published by the Faculty of Law “Iustinianus Primus” at Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia. The Iustinianus Primus Law Review welcomes submissions from a variety of perspectives focusing on Civil Law, Public Law and EU Law. Its first volume was published in 2010. Iustinianus Primus Law Review is an open access journal, and all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. ISSN 1857-8683 Iustinianus Primus Law Review is publish only in electronic format. Iustinianus Primus Law Journal is indexed in HEINONLINE, EBSCO and Directory of Open Access Journals - DOAJ. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr
publisher: Ss Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Law Iustinianus Primus, Skopje
language: en
publication name: Iustinianus Primus Law Review
issn: 1857-8683
items: LEGAL AND SECURITY CHALLENGES IN THE APPLICATION OF THE APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION SPIRITUALI MILITUM CURAE IN THE MACEDONIAN SECURITY SYSTEM
items: http://194.149.137.236/index.php/iplr/article/view/4924
items: THE DOCTRINE OF PIERCING OF CORPORATE VEIL
items: ADMINISTRATIVE SILENCE AND GOOD ADMINISTRATION: THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY AND THE ROLE OF THE OMBUDSMAN IN THE CONTEMPORARY LEGAL SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA
items: THE PATH TOWARDS THE CODIFICATION OF CIVIL LAW IN NORTH MACEDONIA AND THE BALKAN COUNTRIES - THE DILEMMA BETWEEN MODERN AND TRADITIONAL
items: IMPLEMENTING JUSTICE FOR CHILDREN, A CHALLENGE FOR VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING IN NORTH MACEDONIA – GAPS BETWEEN LAW AND PRACTICE
items: INCONSISTENCY OF SPATIAL PLANNING REGULATION AS A BARRIER TO INVESTMENT IN CROATIA
items: IS THERE LEGAL READINESS FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TO BE RECOGNIZED AS A THIRD SUBJECT OF LAW?
items: THE LEGAL REGULATION OF REPRESENTATION AND ITS FUNCTIONS IN CONTEMPORARY CIVIL LAW
items: USUFRUCT IN CONTEMPORARY PROPERTY LAW
items: THE IMPORTANCE OF BEHAVIOURAL TAXATION IN EUROPEAN UNION
items: THE RIGHT OF MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS TO EXERCISE CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION TO ABORTION: THE CASE OF THEREPUBLIC OF CROATIA
items: CYBERSECURITY CHALLENGES IN EMERGING DEMOCRACIES:THE CASE OF NORTH MACEDONIA IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROATLANTIC INTEGRATION
items: ADVANCED LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR JUSTICE FOR CHILDREN INCONFLICT WITH THE LAW AND PENITENTIARY INSTITUTIONS FOR CHILDREN
items: SAFEGUARDING FREEDOM OF EXPRESSIONIN THE AGE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
items: THE VETO IN THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL: HISTORY,RATIONALE, AND (AB)USE
items: GROUPS OF COMPANIES AND ABUSE OF LEGAL FORM
items: CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AT THE EDGE OF THE MACHINE
items: CHALLENGES OF ARBITRATION AS A METHOD OF INVESTMENT DISPUTE SETTLEMENT
items: THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DETECTING CROSS-BORDER TAX EVASION: REGULATORY GAPS AND CASEBASED EVIDENCE
items: INTERNAL SELF-DETERMINATION AND POWER-SHARING AS A MEANS OF ADDRESSING CLAIMS FOR SELF-DETERMINATION
items: COHERENCE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S FOREIGN POLICY ACCORDING TO THE LISBON TREATY
items: SUPPRESSION OF POLITICAL OPPONENTS IN HYBRID REGIMES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS
items: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TAX EVASION: DETERIORATION AND SYSTEM OF CRIMINAL SANCTIONS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA AND FEDERATION OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
items: FROM MANDATORY CONCILIATION TO MANDATORY MEDIATION IN FAMILY DISPUTES INVOLVING CHILDREN: NORTH MACEDONIA IN LIGHT OF EUROPEAN HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS
items: FLEXIBILITY OF CONSTITUTIONS AS A FACTOR OF POLITICAL STABILITY. THE CASE OF WESTERN BALKANS STATES
items: OLD HABITS VS. NEW DEMANDS: CHALLENGES IN REFORMING TOP MANAGERS IN THE MACEDONIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
items: SPECIALIZED BODIES OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE
items: CHALLENGES OF USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE WORK OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
items: THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIGITAL EVIDENCE AND EVIDENCE IN DIGITAL FORM

LEGAL AND SECURITY CHALLENGES IN THE APPLICATION OF THE APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION SPIRITUALI MILITUM CURAE IN THE MACEDONIAN SECURITY SYSTEM
type: item
description: This paper analyzes the institutional setting of religious service in the armed forces through the prism of the Apostolic Constitution Spirituali militum curae (SMC), issued by Pope John Paul II on April 21, 1986. This important document of the Roman Catholic Church regulates the aspects of spiritual care for members of the military forces of the Catholic faith through the establishment of special church structures – the so-called military ordinariates. Previously, church rules for the military chapel and military pastoral care were regulated by an older document (Solemne semper, document of Pope Pius XII from 23 April 1951), but conditions were changing: professionalism in the armed forces increased, society had new views on the role of the military, and new rules in the Concise Code of Canon Law – so a unified, modern legislative framework was needed: so, this constitution SMC superseded the previous rules. The central hypothesis of the research is that this model, which establishes “military ordinariates” as equivalents of dioceses, but with extraterritorial jurisdiction, represents a sui generis legal construction that creates specific challenges for national sovereignty and the secularism of the state. The paper makes a comparative analysis between the national norms of the Holy See and the positive law of the Republic of North Macedonia. Special focus is placed on the security implications – from the issue of “dual loyalty” of military personnel, through the protection of classified information, to the risk of institutional asymmetry in the multi-confessional composition of the Army of North Macedonia (ANM). The conclusion offers recommendations for a “Coordination Model” that balances NATO standards with the domestic legal order.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Spirituali militum curae, Military Ordinariate, Army of North Macedonia, Holy See, national security, military clergy, jurisdiction, dual loyalty
  topic: keywords
creator: Boban Mitevski
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Boban Mitevski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

http://194.149.137.236/index.php/iplr/article/view/4924
type: item
title: MAPPING INSTITUTIONS FOR THE EXECUTION OF MEASURES AND SANCTIONS IMPOSED ON CHILDREN IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW IN THE REPUBLIC OF NORTH MACEDONIA: A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE NATIONAL DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION STRATEGY 2018–2027 “TIMJANIK”
description: The juvenile justice system represents a specific segment of the criminal justice system aimed at protecting children's rights, promoting their rehabilitation and social reintegration, and preventing juvenile delinquency, in accordance with national and international standards. In recent years, this system has undergone continuous development and alignment with European principles, with an increasing emphasis on the concept of restorative justice. The aim of this paper is to map and analyse the institutions responsible for the execution of measures and sanctions imposed on children in conflict with the law, as well as measures for securing their presence, with a particular focus on their role and positioning within the ongoing process of deinstitutionalization in North Macedonia. This process, envisaged by the National Deinstitutionalization Strategy “Timjanik” (2018–2027), seeks to replace institutional care with community-based services. Consequently, questions arise regarding the compatibility between existing juvenile justice measures, which largely rely on institutional infrastructure, and the new policies aimed at reducing institutional placement. The analysis is limited to institutions in which measures and sanctions involving some form of deprivation or restriction of a child’s liberty are executed. The paper highlights the complexity and fragmentation of the system, as well as the challenges associated with its adaptation to the deinstitutionalization process, particularly with regard to ensuring appropriate institutional and alternative forms for the execution of measures and sanctions imposed on children in conflict with the law.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: children in conflict with the law, deinstitutionalization, institutional mapping, juvenile justice system, educational institutions
  topic: keywords
creator: Tijana Angova Hadjieva
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Tijana Angova Hadjieva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

THE DOCTRINE OF PIERCING OF CORPORATE VEIL
type: item
description: Piercing the corporate veil (PCV) is a fundamental exception to limited liability in corporate law, ensuring that companies and associations remain separate legal entities—thereby protecting shareholders from personal liability—unless the corporate form is abused for illegal purposes such as fraud, tax evasion, or other misconduct that harms creditors or the state. This paper critically examines the legal framework for PCV in Croatia, focusing on its dual regulation in both general company law (via the Companies Act) and specialized tax law (through the General Tax Act). It explores how abuse of limited liability triggers personal liability for controlling individuals and the conditions under which the veil may be pierced, as evidenced by Croatian case law, which requires concrete proof of misconduct rather than mere non-performance. A comparative analysis reveals significant differences among jurisdictions. For instance, while the German system employs “Durchgriffshaftung” to impose direct personal liability in cases of asset commingling or undercapitalization, Croatian law maintains a stricter separation between corporate and personal assets. Similarly, in the tax context, the Croatian General Tax Act introduces a mechanism for tax guarantees that holds certain company insiders liable for tax debts when abuse is evident, thereby facilitating faster tax collection. However, this approach risks overextending liability to passive members and generating legal uncertainty. The paper employs a multifaceted methodological framework—including legal doctrinal analysis, comparative and case law analysis, empirical research, sociological inquiry, and normative critique—to identify key deficiencies in the current system. Findings indicate that the normative vagueness in the Companies Act and inconsistent judicial interpretations hinder effective creditor protection, while recent amendments to the General Tax Act may have broadened liability in a manner that conflicts with pri…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: piercing the corporate veil, tax guarantees, third party liability
  topic: keywords
creator: Domagoj Rožac
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Domagoj Rožac https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

ADMINISTRATIVE SILENCE AND GOOD ADMINISTRATION: THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY AND THE ROLE OF THE OMBUDSMAN IN THE CONTEMPORARY LEGAL SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA
type: item
description: Good administration within administrative procedures is based on the complete and consistent application of prescribed principles. This paper focuses on the impact of the principles of effectiveness and efficiency of administrative procedures as guiding ideas that underpin the realization of the principle of good administration. In the context of realizing the right to good administration, particularly in cases where the administration may exhibit certain shortcomings, such as administrative silence, the role and influence of the Ombudsman are reassessed. Since public administration grounds in the rule of law, this inherently implies the legality of administrative decisions and conduct in the function of good administration. In contrast to this model, legal theory recognizes a form of public administration referred to as unlawful, inefficient, unjust, or inequitable conduct. Such conduct may, taken together, be regarded as unlawful. The principles of administrative procedure are therefore established as guiding ideas aimed at ensuring the realization of the principle of good administration. This paper emphasizes the decisive role of the principles of effectiveness and efficiency of administrative procedures in achieving good administration. The study seeks to demonstrate that the efficiency of the state apparatus is essential for the existence of a modern legal state and for the sustainability of good administration. Particular attention is given to the analysis of administrative silence, as well as to the influence of the Ombudsman in providing protection against such shortcomings. In this regard, examples drawn from the Regular Annual Report of the Ombudsman are analyzed in order to illustrate the phenomenon of administrative silence and the mechanisms of protection available to individuals. With the aim of strengthening the principle of good administration, the paper concludes by assessing the application of the relevant procedural principles and evaluating the i…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: administrative procedure, good administration, administrative silence, Ombudsman
  topic: keywords
creator: Darinka Kerečki
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Darinka Kerečki https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

THE PATH TOWARDS THE CODIFICATION OF CIVIL LAW IN NORTH MACEDONIA AND THE BALKAN COUNTRIES - THE DILEMMA BETWEEN MODERN AND TRADITIONAL
type: item
description: The codification of civil law represents one of the most significant legal and civilizational achievements in the history of law. Codification as a notion represents the process of collecting and scientifically arranging the laws that regulate legal and social relations into a single legal document, i.e code, officially promulgated by the legislative organ of the state. The codification of civil law remains one of the greatest challenges of our legislation, with our legislation being among the rare legislations that deviates from the European tradition of codification of civil law, and struggles with the dilemma between modern and traditional. The complexity of the contemporary legal systems, and the rapidly changing social aspects, create many challenges that require a constant review of the legal frameworks and innovative solutions to overcome the challenges with which our legal systems are confronted. Тhe aim of this paper is to contribute to our knowledge regarding the process of the codification of the civil law internally, regionally and internationally. The focus of the author is particularly on providing a comparative analysis of the process of the codification of the civil law in the Republic of N. Macedonia, the Western Balkan countries, and the European tradition of codification of the civil law. The objective of this analysis is to highlight the benefits of the enactment of the Civil Code in general, and in our state in particular, considering it as a step that would contribute in the improvement of the legal system, the facilitation of interpersonal legal relations, and the work of legal practitioners. The results presented through the elaboration and study of the findings from the domestic and foreign literature, from the comparative analysis of the various legal solutions in the above-mentioned research, emphasize the need for the swift adoption of the Civil Code and the importance of abandoning the habit of our legislators to separately regulate civi…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: civil law, codification, comparative analysis, modernization, harmonization
  topic: keywords
creator: Besiana Xhaferi Beqiri
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Besiana Xhaferi Beqiri https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

IMPLEMENTING JUSTICE FOR CHILDREN, A CHALLENGE FOR VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING IN NORTH MACEDONIA – GAPS BETWEEN LAW AND PRACTICE
type: item
description: Child trafficking in North Macedonia represents one of the most serious, darkest and most undetected forms of crime, with profound and long term consequences for victims, while simultaneously testing the functioning of justice and child protection mechanisms. This phenomenon presents at least three related dimensions: serious violations of children's rights, gaps in early identification and inter-institutional coordination, and testing the capacity of investigative and prosecution bodies. Globally, it has been reported that over 40 million people live in forms of modern slavery and trafficking, while about one in four victims is a child, which underlines the massive and systematic dimension of child exploitation (Rafferty 2020). The risk of trafficking affects every child regardless of nationality, gender or age but increases significantly when protective aspects such as family and social are broken due to poverty, economy, family problems, discrimination based on gender, identity, disability, as well as as a result of conflicts, illegal migration or breakdown of the legal order (Gutierrez et al 2021). Forms of modern slavery including psychological control, isolation, forced debt and violence prevent seeking help and remove the victim from recognition, support and research, while prejudices about the “appearance” or behaviour of the victim can lead to non-identification by competent authorities (Identification and Initial Care 2014). As for North Macedonia, in the normative aspect, it has taken important steps to be as close as possible to harmonizing its legislation with international standards, by including principles such as proactive identification of victims, the principle of their non punishment, child-friendly procedures, the obligation to avoid re-victimization and the provision of legal remedies. But what is important in all this is the emergence of gaps in terms of implementation: potential victims are identified late, not identified at all or misidentifi…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Child trafficking, North Macedonia
  topic: keywords
creator: Agnesa Fetai
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Agnesa Fetai https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

INCONSISTENCY OF SPATIAL PLANNING REGULATION AS A BARRIER TO INVESTMENT IN CROATIA
type: item
description: Spatial planning is a broad and interdisciplinary field that encompasses environmental protection, cultural heritage, transportation, and economic development (Adams, Alden, Harris, 2006:4). It influences the development of individual country by considering the aforementioned sectoral policies. Spatial plans are fundamental documents of physical planning, and in Croatia they are regulated by the Spatial Planning Act. In the Republic of Croatia, these plans are considered subordinate legislation and are adopted at three levels: national, regional, and local. Several types of spatial plans are adopted at each level of spatial planning. The Spatial Planning Act stipulates the obligation of mutual coordination of spatial plans in the vertical and horizontal directions. In terms of vertical alignment, a lower-level spatial plan must be consistent with the higher-level spatial plan. Horizontally, a spatial plan covering a narrower area must comply with the spatial plan of a broader area, and specific rules are established to address situations where inconsistencies between them arise. It should be noticed, however, that spatial plans are documents which should follow the necessities of the society, environmental goals and sustainable development. Due to the principle of legality, all subordinate legislation must be aligned with the law. Nevertheless, frequent changes and amendments to spatial plans occur at all levels. As a result, navigating the regulatory framework of spatial planning becomes challenging for professionals, public officials, and individuals seeking to obtain building permits.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: spatial plan, coordination, judicial review, investment, Croatia.
  topic: keywords
creator: Mateja Held
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Mateja Held https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-12
publication date: 2026-06-12

IS THERE LEGAL READINESS FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TO BE RECOGNIZED AS A THIRD SUBJECT OF LAW?
type: item
description: Artificial intelligence (AI) is no longer a novelty in any respect, and therefore it should not be perceived as a phenomenon whose outcomes we still need to observe before developing a common societal strategy in any domain. The question arises whether the European Union’s AI Act is sufficient to regulate it, or whether it represents a rather weak mechanism for that purpose. By its nature, artificial intelligence is a technical phenomenon, similar to many others before it, such as the discovery of electric energy or the internal combustion engine. However, unlike them, AI possesses the property of autonomy, which is not inherent in any other creation of the human mind. That autonomy, reinforced by its enormous expansion through the active use of artificial intelligence by every modern individual, the gradual creation of dependence on it in everyday activities, and its penetration through self-imposition, cannot be regarded merely as another object or service. Consciously or unconsciously, users of AI develop their own notion of its personalization, perceiving it in their thoughts as an interlocutor or an active collaborator. This tendency arises not only from the possibility of direct communication with AI but also from human nature itself and the theory of anthropomorphism, according to which human characteristics are attributed to objects or abstract concepts. This entire set of fundamental considerations, which are well justified, leads us to reflect that AI cannot be integrated within the existing legal concepts of material objects. It certainly cannot be classified as a natural person; in some aspects, it encroaches upon the characteristics of a legal entity. However, we consider it most appropriate for AI to be assigned the nomenclature of a person—but what kind? Some authors of similar studies discuss the introduction of the concept of a “digital person” as a third type of subject of law, yet all of this remains without legal codification that would determine…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: artificial intelligence, third subject of law, legal challenges, digital person
  topic: keywords
creator: Dragi Rashkovski
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Dragi Rashkovski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-06-01
publication date: 2026-06-01

THE LEGAL REGULATION OF REPRESENTATION AND ITS FUNCTIONS IN CONTEMPORARY CIVIL LAW
type: item
description: Representation is an integral part of contemporary civil law. Its benefits extend beyond the interests of natural persons and legal entities, as it plays a crucial role in civil-law relations by facilitating legal traffic. The objective of this paper is to present a detailed research on how representation is regulated in contemporary civil law and its functions within the legal system. The paper will focus on the development of representation in civil law systems through a comparative analysis of the continental legal systems within Europe. The goal of this paper is to add to the efforts of modernizing representation and enhancing its functions, especially the social-protection function.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: representation, legal traffic, civil law, rights and obligations, functions
  topic: keywords
creator: Tea Lalevska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Tea Lalevska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

USUFRUCT IN CONTEMPORARY PROPERTY LAW
type: item
description: Usufruct is a form of personal servitude that grants its holder the right to use another person's property fully. It is a real right (right in rem) that originated in Roman law and has since been adopted and integrated into civil codes and property laws across Europe during the reception of Roman law. The right of usufruct has remained relevant and continues to play an important role in modern property law. This paper aims to provide a comparative overview of how usufruct is regulated within the legal systems of European countries, highlighting its main characteristics and shared features. The analysis will focus on the regulation of the usufruct right in Macedonian property law and explore potential improvements to facilitate its practical application.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: property law, servitudes, usufruct, rights in rem
  topic: keywords
creator: Tina Pržeska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Tina Pržeska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

THE IMPORTANCE OF BEHAVIOURAL TAXATION IN EUROPEAN UNION
type: item
description: Fiscal policies, both in general and within the European Union (EU), include an examination of the reasons behind tax evasion and the establishment of mechanisms to encourage greater tax compliance among taxpayers. In such analyses, the behavioural economic and taxation policies model is deemed more effective than traditional tax models, considering various factors influencing taxpayer behavior. Within these interdisciplinary considerations, encompassing social and cultural elements, the implementation of principles of equity in taxation surfaces as a pivotal influence in molding the behavior of taxpayers and their tax morale. The European Union's situation is quite complex, given the multitude of member states and the diverse geo-political, cultural, historical, and social contexts, along with variations in economic development and other differences. In this nuanced landscape, the behavioural model seems much more fitting for analysis as it considers these specificities and distinctions. Among these factors, behavioural taxation plays a pivotal role and European fiscal policies highlight its relevance, both in theory and practice. The paper analyzes how behavioral taxation affects tax compliance and tax morale of taxpayers in the EU.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: behavioural taxation, tax morale, tax compliance, European Union
  topic: keywords
creator: Emina Jerković
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Emina Jerković https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

THE RIGHT OF MEDICAL PROFESSIONALS TO EXERCISE CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION TO ABORTION: THE CASE OF THEREPUBLIC OF CROATIA
type: item
description: The Croatian Act on Health Measures for Exercising the Right to Free Decision-Making on Childbirth, in force since 1978, allows termination of pregnancy at the request of the pregnant woman until the end of the tenth week from conception. This regulation, adopted while the Republic of Croatia was part of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, was found by the Constitutional Court of Croatia, in its ruling of 21 February 2017, to require alignment with the Croatian legal and institutional framework established after independence. For these reasons, the Constitutional Court gave the Croatian Parliament a two-year deadline to adopt a new abortion law, which was not complied with. In its ruling, the Constitutional Court emphasised that the legislator has broad authority in regulating abortion, including with regard to the issue that will be the focus of this paper: the regulation of physicians’ conscientious objection to performing abortions. This paper will examine whether it is desirable for conscientious objection by medical professionals to be included in the new Croatian Abortion Act and, if so, how this institution should be regulated in order to avoid the problems that may arise for patients when a large number of physicians invoke it. The paper is based on the assumption that theoretical studies of conscientious objection in medicine can inform Croatian legislative efforts. The paper is structured as follows. First, it will conceptually elaborate on the notion of conscientious objection, which is intended to protect the “deeply held beliefs” and moral integrity of physicians. Secondly, the paper will seek to determine the limits of exercising this right, particularly when it conflicts with women’s reproductive rights. A critical overview of the arguments for and against conscientious objection in this medical procedure will be provided.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: moral integrity, abortion, conscientious objection
  topic: keywords
creator: Ivana Tucak
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Ivana Tucak https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

CYBERSECURITY CHALLENGES IN EMERGING DEMOCRACIES:THE CASE OF NORTH MACEDONIA IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROATLANTIC INTEGRATION
type: item
description: In recent years, cybersecurity has become one of the central issues in international relations, not only as a technical challenge but also as a matter of national security, diplomacy, and democratic stability. Globally, the main challenges include protecting critical infrastructure, preventing state sponsored or other types of cyber attacks, and ensuring resilience against hybrid threats. For small and resource-limited states, these risks are amplified by limited technical capacity, lack of consistent legislation and dependence on external technologies and expertise. This paper argues that cybersecurity for North Macedonia cannot be understood in purely technical terms. It is closely tied to democratic governance, regional stability, and the country’s commitment to become full-fledged EU member country. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach: raising cyber awareness on national level, investments in cyber security, alignment with EU/NATO cybersecurity legal framework, cooperation with NATO and EU structures and participation in regional initiatives in the Western Balkans. North Macedonia has no alternative but to place cybersecurity at the top of its national agenda — both as a matter of safeguarding its sovereignty and critical infrastructure and as a prerequisite for positioning itself as an active and effective participant in the global digital order.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: cybersecurity, cyber awareness, cyber threats, North Macedonia
  topic: keywords
creator: Katerina Buchkovska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Katerina Buchkovska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

ADVANCED LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR JUSTICE FOR CHILDREN INCONFLICT WITH THE LAW AND PENITENTIARY INSTITUTIONS FOR CHILDREN
type: item
description: With the adoption of the new Law on Justice for Children (LJC) in 2024, the Macedonian legislation regarding children has been fully aligned with the relevant EU directives in terms of strengthening of certain aspects of the presumption of innocence and of the right to be present at the trial in criminal proceedings, in terms of procedural safeguards for children who are suspects or accused in criminal proceedings, the right of access to a lawyer in criminal proceedings and the right to have a third party informed upon deprivation of liberty as well as in terms of establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime. Within the framework of the basic principles, the LJC defined for the first time the principle of the best interests of the child, both in terms of its meaning in material terms and in terms of its priority in the interpretation of the provisions of the LJC. When taking about the right of the child there is an obligation the child to be informed about his/her rights, but also the obligation to be given the rights in writing (bill of rights), expanded application of the principle of expediency, except for serious crimes committed, broader scope of the term "child victim" by including indirect victims as well as a child victim when it comes to a child who promotes, accepts, supports, justifies, advocates and participates in acts of radicalization, violent extremism and terrorism, severe forms of violence, mass migration movements, xenophobia and other severe forms of extremism. New 2024 LJC became a procedural law because for the first time, it prescribed the court's actions in the case of a child in conflict with the law, instead of the previous solution that referred to the Code of Criminal Procedure without taking into account the specifics of the treatment of children in conflict with the law. Regarding institutions for execution of educational measures for children and child imprisonment, there are accurate solutio…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: justice for children, child best interests, criminal procedure, child victims, penitentiary institutions for children
  topic: keywords
creator: Gordana Lažetić
creator: Elena Mujoska Trpevska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Gordana Lažetić, Elena Mujoska Trpevska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

SAFEGUARDING FREEDOM OF EXPRESSIONIN THE AGE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
type: item
description: The world in the 21st century is moving at an unprecedented speed in the field of technological development, and new technologies based on artificial intelligence have now become deeply rooted in human reality. Independence and autonomy of computer technologies offer speed, efficiency and lightning-fast solutions for filtering, ranking and sharing information on the internet, while profoundly transforming the way people communicate, consume and engage with media, governance and society. The ability to rapidly collect and analyze personal data inevitably impacts the freedom of expression, as, to be able to freely form political, religious or other opinions and views, and to freely express them, an individual needs a private domain without interference from the state, private sectors or society. AI-driven surveillance and monitoring tools, when used without transparency or accountability, increase the risk of profiling, censorship, and repression. In the absence of strong data protection laws and independent oversight, individuals may even self-censor, fearing they are being watched or judged for their views. These consequences can potentially undermine the democratic values of accountability, integrity, adherence to the rule of law and respect for human rights, particularly in contexts where legal protections and institutional capacities are still evolving. This paper offers a comprehensive analysis of how the right to freedom of expression is challenged by artificial intelligence systems and algorithms used on the online platforms. It further analyzes the obligations that online platforms, i.e., Internet intermediares, own in respect to the use of AI-driven systems, and how different legal systems address the novel challenges that generative AI poses to the freedom of expression. The paper aims to demonstrate the need to properly and carefully address and adopt concrete legal frameworks to regulate the use of artificial intelligence, while also arguing that the pres…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Freedom Of Expression; Artificial Intelligence; Legal Accountabily; Online Platforms; Human Rights
  topic: keywords
creator: Mia Georgievska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Mia Georgievska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

THE VETO IN THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL: HISTORY,RATIONALE, AND (AB)USE
type: item
description: The UN Security Council (UNSC) is the body endowed with the primary responsibility and powers to undertake collective action in order to “save future generations from the scourge of war”. Yet, the powers invested in the UNSC came with a caveat – each of the five permanent members (P5) of the Security Council would have a veto power regarding any proposed decision in this body concerning international peace and security. This paper deals with the UNSC veto – its history, justification, and the implications of its existence and (ab)use by the P5. In the first part of this paper, the voting in the UNSC, as regulated in Article 27 of the UN Charter, is explained and interpreted. Afterwards, the veto powers of the P5 are detailed, focusing on those veto powers that are not explicitly mentioned in the UN Charter (the socalled: “double veto”; “meta veto”; “behind the scene veto”, “reverse veto” and “indirect veto”), before delving into the history behind the creation of the Council and the veto in particular. Lastly, the paper turns to the idea of the “unreasonable veto”, or the (ab)use of the P5’s veto powers.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: UN Security Council (UNSC); veto; permanent five (P5); UN Charter; international peace and security
  topic: keywords
creator: Ljupcho Stojkovski
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Ljupcho Stojkovski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

GROUPS OF COMPANIES AND ABUSE OF LEGAL FORM
type: item
description: This paper examines the issue of abuse of legal form within groups of companies, with particular attention to the ways in which such groups may rely on complex structures and formal legal separation to evade liability. It analyzes the consequences of these practices for legal certainty, market competition, and the protection of creditors. The paper further considers the legal mechanisms developed to limit abuse of legal forms, including piercing the corporate veil and the rules governing liability within groups of companies. The conclusion emphasizes the need to strike a balance between respect for the autonomy of separate legal entities and effective protection against abusive practices, as well as the importance of improving regulatory frameworks in response to contemporary challenges in company governance.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: groups of companies, abuse of legal form, separate legal personality, limited liability, piercing the corporate veil
  topic: keywords
creator: Katerina Zhateva
creator: Biljana Petrevska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Katerina Zhateva, Biljana Petrevska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AT THE EDGE OF THE MACHINE
type: item
description: The increasing incorporation of algorithms, artificial intelligence, and automated decisionmaking systems into corporate governance marks a structural transformation in the way corporate authority is exercised. Decision-making processes that were historically grounded in human judgment, deliberation, and fiduciary responsibility are now increasingly mediated by algorithmic systems that shape or determine outcomes in areas such as risk management, compliance, shareholder voting, and capital allocation. While these developments are frequently justified in terms of efficiency, accuracy, and predictive capacity, their implications for corporate law remain insufficiently theorized. This article examines the emergence of what it terms algorithmic corporate actors, i.e. non-human systems that perform governance-relevant functions with legally and economically significant consequences for corporations and their stakeholders. It argues that the rise of such systems generates a black box dilemma for corporate law. On the one hand, algorithmic governance enhances decision-making capacity and oversight. On the other hand, it obscures responsibility, complicates the application of directors’ fiduciary duties, and weakens traditional mechanisms of accountability and participation. The article analyses how reliance on opaque algorithmic outputs challenges established doctrines concerning directors’ duties of care and oversight, reshapes the exercise of shareholder rights through automated voting and decision-support systems, and strains the capacity of regulators to monitor compliance regimes governed by proprietary code. Drawing on comparative perspectives and regulatory developments, including emerging approaches to algorithmic transparency and auditability, the article evaluates whether existing legal frameworks are adequate or require adaptation. The central claim advanced is that algorithmic corporate governance cannot be understood as a purely technical evolution. It represe…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: corporate governance, artificial intelligence
  topic: keywords
creator: Darko Spasevski
creator: Vildan Drpljanin
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Darko Spasevski, Vildan Drpljanin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-05-27
publication date: 2026-05-27

CHALLENGES OF ARBITRATION AS A METHOD OF INVESTMENT DISPUTE SETTLEMENT
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516330m The purpose of the paper is to question the challenges of arbitration as a method for settlement of foreign direct investment disputes and to provide answers to several important questions, such as: defining the challenges of the concept as an alternative to domestic courts decisions, determining its outline, explaining the basic advantages and disadvantages of arbitration, analyzing the arbitration systems and their features, the enforcement mechanisms, the way to reform the investor-state dispute settlement, arbitration institutions in the Western Balkan and the challenges of investment arbitration in North Macedonia. It discusses the legal remedies available to foreign investors if state conduct breaches those standards. The default rule usually is that the investor must bring the case to national courts in the host state. However, many states have allowed investors to bring disputes to international arbitration instead of (or in addition to) national courts, as part of strategies to promote foreign investment. In the paper is discussed the concept of arbitration as a procedure whereby both sides to a dispute agree to let a designated third party, the arbitrator or the arbitral tribunal, decide the outcome of a legal dispute. Arbitration serves a purpose of advancing the collaboration of the disputing parties, with an ultimate objective of effective and efficient settlement of legal issues. It explores dispute settlement in international investment law, evaluating the criticisms that it is undemocratic and non-transparent and at the same time seen as a major advantage to foreign firms because it ensures fairness and confidentiality. Use of investor-state arbitration has increased sharply since the late 1990s. By the end of 2014, there were over 600 known cases of international arbitration under investment treaties; while up to the year 2000, this number was below 50. Choosing arbitrators, as well as the desired characteristic…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Investor-state dispute, Investor, State, Arbitration, Arbitration Systems, UNCITRAL, ICSID,
  topic: keywords
creator: Igor Mojanoski
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review
date: 2026-02-20
publication date: 2026-02-20

THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DETECTING CROSS-BORDER TAX EVASION: REGULATORY GAPS AND CASEBASED EVIDENCE
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516301m The evolution of tax laws, increased financial transactions, growing data and higher expectations from taxpayers for government efficiency and transparency are just some of the challenges taxation systems around the world face in the era of advanced technology. The complex tax systems are faced with new dilemmas, which are directly connected to digitalization. To address these challenges, tax authorities have turned toward the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI). In the past five years, we have witnessed the increased use of AI in international tax enforcement. Across the world, governments and tax authorities rely on algorithms to detect cross border tax fraud more than ever before. AI is also used to improve tax compliance and optimize audit targeting. With the vast expansion of economies and complex financial transactions, AI tools offer serious benefits in automatization of tax administration, identification of anomalies and improvement of transparency. However, the use of AI in detecting cross-border financial crimes still remains problematic. Even though the use of AI brings advanced solutions regarding pattern recognition and risk analysis across jurisdictions, it also raises legal, ethical, and procedural challenges for tax authorities. Cross-border tax evasion has long posed a significant challenge to global financial transparency and tax justice. In this context, Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be used as a powerful tool in detecting and combating tax evasion. Yet, while AI holds transformative potential, its use remains underdeveloped, mostly due to the lack of regulatory frameworks. This paper analyses the role of AI in detecting cross-border tax evasion, examines existing regulatory gaps, and analyzes key case-based evidence regarding the use of AI in this domain.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: tax evasion, artificial intelligence, regulatory gaps
  topic: keywords
creator: Ana Marija Mihailova
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review
date: 2026-02-20
publication date: 2026-02-20

INTERNAL SELF-DETERMINATION AND POWER-SHARING AS A MEANS OF ADDRESSING CLAIMS FOR SELF-DETERMINATION
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516301m Shaped by the experiences of the two World Wars, self-determination emerged as a key element in the maintenance of international peace and gradually acquired its legal and political framework within the United Nations system, particularly through its incorporation into the founding documents, the international human rights covenants, and the resolutions adopted during the process of decolonization. Following the end of the Cold War, the transition and democratization of the states of the Eastern Bloc once again brought to the fore issues related to the status and rights of national minorities, creating a need to redefine the modes of implementation of self-determination. This paper analyses contemporary approaches to self determination through innovative mechanisms of power-sharing and governance models aimed at ensuring effective political participation and establishing effective protection of the rights of national minorities, within existing state borders, through the devolution of power, federalism, autonomy, and other institutional arrangements, thereby contributing to the development of inclusive, representative, and multicultural democratic societies.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: POWER-SHARING, SELF-DETERMINATION
  topic: keywords
creator: Marija Mircheska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-02-25
publication date: 2026-02-25

COHERENCE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S FOREIGN POLICY ACCORDING TO THE LISBON TREATY
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516320b The foreign policy activities of the European Union have long suffered from the fact that the Member States of the Union neither spoke nor acted with one voice. The European foreign policy has been in a process of growing harmonization of its objectives, instruments, needs and policies. It has gradually developed new tools and instruments with which it could address the new challenges imposed by the global, interdependent, and complex world. The establishment of objectives, principles, and guidelines through which the foreign policy activities of the Union would be implemented was a necessity. A fundamental principle of the EU’s foreign policy, which provides an illustration of the coordinated behavior of the Member States, is the principle of coherence. This principle represents a basic precondition for the effective external representation and “speaking with one voice.” In other words, in order to be an active and influential actor in global affairs, the Union must ensure coherence between the political and economic dimensions of its foreign policy. A serious attempt to strengthen coherence in the foreign policy actions of the Union arises with the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, which introduces important innovations and institutional arrangements. This paper analyzes the legal impact of the Lisbon Treaty and whether it has succeeded or not in its intention to achieve greater unity in the foreign policy decision-making of the Member States.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: European Union, coherence, Lisbon treaty, legal impact, foreign policy
  topic: keywords
creator: Daniela Bochvarska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-02-25
publication date: 2026-02-25

SUPPRESSION OF POLITICAL OPPONENTS IN HYBRID REGIMES IN THE WESTERN BALKANS
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516360k In the post-communist countries that today are referred to as the Western Balkans, processes of democratization began at the end of the twentieth century following the collapse of communist rule. However, instead of fully transitioning to democracy, these countries have developed hybrid regimes, a political systems that blend democratic and authoritarian elements. While multiparty elections are held, they are neither free nor fair. Political opposition exists and can criticize the government, but it is suppressed through subtle rather than brutal methods. One key strategy is legal repression, where political opponents face continuous pressure through inspections, audits and politically motivated investigations. Although these actions are formally justified within the legal framework, they are selectively applied to weaken critics and silence dissent. Intellectuals, writers, journalists, professors, judges, businessman and politicians critical of the government are disproportionately targeted while the institutions remain blind and silent about the abuses and crimes of the supporters of the ruling elites. In some cases, legal repression results in administrative or financial burdens for political critics, while in others, it escalates to criminal prosecution and imprisonment. Beyond legal repression, media control plays a crucial role in hybrid regimes. Rather than shutting down independent media outright, governments co opt or financially pressure them to promote official narratives while marginalizing independent journalism. This allows ruling elites to use the media to discredit political dissidents, labelling them as traitors, foreign agents, criminals, spies, oligarchs etc. In some countries, such tactics were even institutionalized through lustration policies, further delegitimizing political opponents and reinforcing their exclusion from public life. All of this is happening in a context where state institutions and resour…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: politics, political system, democracy, elections, hybrid regimes, illiberal democracy, stabilotocracy
  topic: keywords
creator: Marko Krtolica
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review
date: 2026-02-20
publication date: 2026-02-20

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TAX EVASION: DETERIORATION AND SYSTEM OF CRIMINAL SANCTIONS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA AND FEDERATION OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516307s This paper investigates the tax evasion through the lens of both classical economic theory and certain contemporary behavioral approaches, while maintaining focus on empirical data on relevant aspects of tax criminal policy, in both Bosnia and Herzegovina and Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). The analysis begins with the rational choice framework, where individuals, as Homo economicus, are modeled as utility-maximizing agents who weigh the expected benefits of evasion against the risks of detection and punishment. In non-academic discourse in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is a prevailing attitude regarding the "profitability" of committing tax offenses, which directly implies the inefficiency of existing criminal policy. This analysis will examine the classical Allingham and Sandmo deterrence model in the context of empirical data related to the suppression of tax evasion and criminal policy on tax-related criminal offences. Key findings show that suspended prison sentences and imprisonments of up to one year dominate in the structure of imposed criminal sanctions for tax-related criminal offences. Institute of substituting imprisonment with a monetary fine in criminal policy in BiH negatively affects general prevention in terms of tax related criminal offences, since it allows for a replacement of imprisonment up to one year in prison for monetary fine. The statutory severity of the criminal sanction for tax evasion appears sufficient, but the severity of sanctions actually imposed by courts clearly points to a problematic psychological attitude toward tax evasion in Bosnia and Herzegovina: there seems to be a uniform perception of tax evasion as not being a particularly "serious" criminal offense, which indicates a high level of tax resistance among citizens.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Tax Evasion, Tax-related Crimes, Deterrence Model, Effectiveness of Criminal Policy, Rational Choice Theory
  topic: keywords
creator: Edina Sudžuka
creator: Haris Hadžijusufović
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
date: 2026-02-25
publication date: 2026-02-25

FROM MANDATORY CONCILIATION TO MANDATORY MEDIATION IN FAMILY DISPUTES INVOLVING CHILDREN: NORTH MACEDONIA IN LIGHT OF EUROPEAN HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516343i This article examines the implications of eventual mandatory mediation in family disputes involving children in North Macedonia, assessed against European human rights and children rights standards. It argues that the existing institute of (re)conciliation (мирење) is outdated and fails to meet European requirements. Introducing a mandatory mediation session in such disputes could increase mediation uptake, de-escalate conflicts, and better safeguard children’s interests. However, mandatory mediation also raises concerns regarding voluntariness, access to courts, and procedural fairness. Through a critical review of international human rights treaties and European legal instruments, alongside national regulation, including the Law on Mediation, the Law on the Family, and the family-related provisions of the Draft Civil Code, the article assesses whether mandatory mediation can effectively “revive” mediation while also advancing the best interests of the child and respecting fundamental rights more broadly.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: conciliation, mandatory mediation, family disputes, children’s rights
  topic: keywords
creator: Elena Ignovska
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Iustinianus Primus Law Review
date: 2026-02-20
publication date: 2026-02-20

FLEXIBILITY OF CONSTITUTIONS AS A FACTOR OF POLITICAL STABILITY. THE CASE OF WESTERN BALKANS STATES
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516294p This paper elaborates on the relationship between the political system's stability and a constitution's flexibility. Using the comparative constitutionalism perspective, one can find some background assumptions underlying political system mechanisms. The core of the constitutional system is made of political elements manifested in the Preamble and legal elements, which are to be found in the body of the written document of the constitution. Rules and procedures for interplay between these elements are crucial for comprehending political stability issues. This theoretical approach shows its full gravity when analyzing the political peculiarities of Western Balkans states, where constitutions are utilized as political instruments for stabilizing volatile multi-ethnic and pluralistic societies. The outcome of the research is significant for better understanding the Balkan political context as well as the inherent logic of the idea of constitutionalism.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: political stability, comparative constitutionalism, Western Balkans, preamble, flexibility, resilience, political system, constitutional law
  topic: keywords
creator: Łukasz Perlikowski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025
date: 2025-10-21
publication date: 2025-10-21

OLD HABITS VS. NEW DEMANDS: CHALLENGES IN REFORMING TOP MANAGERS IN THE MACEDONIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516229pd A significant factor in determining whether a country will thrive is the quality of its public administration. Citizens are far more likely to enjoy a higher quality of life if their country’s public administration has the capacity to fulfill its duties effectively and perform optimally. The business sector is more likely to develop when the public administration operates smoothly and provides stability, as well as quick and accessible services. The civil sector, likewise, can rely on a capable and responsive partner if the public administration functions transparently and efficiently. In other words, the institutions falling under the umbrella term “public administration” are responsible for enforcing the law (while considering both individual rights and the public interest), implementing policies, supervising compliance with regulations by citizens and legal entities, delivering public services, and more. For that reason, they play a vital role in ensuring citizens’ well-being, fostering a business-friendly environment, and contributing to the development and success of the civil sector. Given this, it is essential that these institutions are properly managed. This requires top public managers who are competent, informed, well-equipped, responsible, and sufficiently independent. In this context, the paper at hand examines top public managers in the Republic of North Macedonia. It explores not only the legal framework governing managers in the public administration (also referred to as top public managers, office holders, elected and appointed persons, or functionaries), but also the actual practices concerning their recruitment, performance evaluation, accountability, and dismissal. The suggestions the authors provide throughout the paper are envisaged as a remedy against the systemic weaknesses that have been identified and that are elaborated upon herein.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: public administration
  topic: keywords
subject: reform
  topic: keywords
subject: North Macedonia
  topic: keywords
subject: EU
  topic: keywords
creator: Ana Pavlovska Daneva
creator: Konstantin Bitrakov
rights: Copyright (c) 2025
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15

SPECIALIZED BODIES OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516284s The Council of Europe is a traditional intergovernmental organization. Its internal structure includes the Parliamentary Assembly, which is a consultative body of the Organization in which delegations from the member states' parliaments participate, and the Committee of Ministers, which is the only executive and decision-making body of the entire Organization. This is explicitly stated in the clause of Article 10 of the Statute of the Council of Europe, which lists only the Consultative Assembly and the Committee of Ministers as the Organization's basic organs. The Consultative Assembly, as its name suggests, has only advisory authority and, in a similar vein, forms the Organization's so-called parliamentary pillar. This is clearly stipulated in the provision of Article 10 of the Statute of the Council of Europe, where only the Committee of Ministers (which constitutes the so-called intergovernmental pillar of the Organization) and the Consultative Assembly are listed as the basic organs of the Organization, which, as evident from its title, has only advisory competence and which analogously forms the so-called parliamentary pillar of the Organization. This organizational structure of the Council of Europe is completed by the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, which not coincidentally has the status of the third pillar of the Organization, as well as a series of special expert bodies, including the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) and the European Commission for Democracy through Law (known as the Venice Commission). The latter also includes the offices of the political officials of the Council of Europe, including the Secretary General of the Organization and the Commissioner for Human Rights. Analogous to the latter, it is quite clear that the generally known European Court of Human Rights – founded on the basis of the ECHR – is not an organ of the Council of Europe, as is the case with all th…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: CoE
  topic: keywords
subject: Venice Commission
  topic: keywords
subject: ECRI
  topic: keywords
creator: Ardijana Stafai
rights: Copyright (c) 2025
date: 2025-10-14
publication date: 2025-10-14

CHALLENGES OF USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE WORK OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516277ak In the paper, the author deals with the current issue of introducing artificial intelligence in the work of public administration, as a logical process of upgrading the digital transformation of public administration in a global framework. Starting from the fact that modern public administration is called upon to fulfil several key characteristics: to be efficient, transparent, inclusive, service-oriented, and above all, legally regulated. The author points out that the introduction of digital technologies, automated systems, artificial intelligence and interoperable databases can advance these goals. However, she points out that for the introduction of digital transformation and artificial intelligence in public administration, several assumptions need to be met: the existence of a clear political will for implementation; continuous development of the technical infrastructure; providing big data and interoperability at all levels; educated public servants and citizens to provide and use such services and of course on a clear, predictable and integrated legal framework.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: digital transformation; artificial intelligence; public administration
  topic: keywords
creator: Anastazija Anastasovska Kostovska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025
date: 2025-10-14
publication date: 2025-10-14

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIGITAL EVIDENCE AND EVIDENCE IN DIGITAL FORM
type: item
description: https://doi.org/10.55302/iplr2516268r At first glance, the two concepts—digital evidence and evidence in digital form—may seem synonymous. However, while all digital evidence can indeed be classified as evidence in digital form, not all evidence in digital form qualifies as digital evidence. This distinction leads to the conclusion that digital evidence constitutes a subset of evidence in digital form. Yet, even this conclusion is not entirely absolute, as for digital evidence to be admissible in judicial proceedings, it must satisfy specific prerequisites. These are not merely technical prerequisites—which fall outside the scope of this paper—but primarily legal prerequisites that determine whether “ordinary” digital records may be transformed into “admissible” digital evidence capable of serving as the basis for a court ruling. Digital evidence, as a specific category of evidence in digital form, is distinguished from other types of digital-form evidence by the presence of metadata, which serves to substantiate many of its inherent properties. In the absence of such metadata, digital evidence is reduced to mere evidence in digital form, lacking the distinctive qualities that render it probative and admissible. Metadata is often described as “data about data.” These are digital records which, although sometimes invisible or, if visible, incomprehensible to the ordinary user of information technology, provide the unique “fingerprint” of a digital record. Much like a fingerprint left on a physical piece of evidence, metadata authenticates and preserves the integrity of the digital record. Without such a “fingerprint,” one might say that “the glass is shattered on the floor, but it cannot be determined which of those present threw it.” Metadata thus constitutes the DNA of a digital record. Although technical in its essence, metadata is not merely a technical concept. It also functions as a legal category, explicitly addressed in numerous legal instruments regulating t…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: digital evidence; evidence in digital form; metadata; digital forensics
  topic: keywords
creator: Dragi Rashkovski
creator: Veronika Rashkovska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025
date: 2025-10-14
publication date: 2025-10-14